Performance and good performance will lead to desired rewards. Victor Vroom (1964) was the first to develop an expectancy theory with direct application to work settings, which was later expanded and refined by Porter and Lawler (1968) and others (Pinder. Expectancy theory is based on four assumptions (Vroom,.

It has been suggested that be into this article. () Proposed since January 2016. Motivation is the reason for people's, desires, and needs.

Motivation is also one's direction to behavior, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behavior. A motive is what prompts the person to act in a certain way, or at least develop an inclination for specific behavior. According to Maehr and Meyer, 'Motivation is a word that is part of the popular culture as few other psychological concepts are.' Types of theories and models:- Motivation theories can be classified on a number of bases: •: based on whether the underlying theory of human is based on natural forces (drives, needs, desires) or some kind of rationality (instrumentality, meaningfulness, self-identity).

• vs.: based on whether the focus is on the content ('what') motivates vs process ('how') motivation takes place. Main article: Motivation as a desire to perform an action is usually defined as having two parts, directional such as directed towards a positive stimulus or away from a negative one, as well as the activated 'seeking phase' and consummatory 'liking phase'. This type of motivation has neurobiological roots in the, and mesolimbic. Activated 'seeking' behavior, such as locomotor activity, is influenced by dopaminergic drugs, and experiments reveal that is released during the anticipation of a.

The 'wanting behavior' associated with a rewarding stimulus can be increased by microinjections of and dopaminergic drugs in the and. Injections in this area produce pleasure, however outside of these they create an increased desire. Furthermore, depletion or inhibition of dopamine in neurons of the nucleus accumbens decreases appetitive but not consummatory behavior. Dopamine is further implicated in motivation as administration of amphetamine increased the break point in a progressive ratio self-reinforcement schedule.

That is, subjects were willing to go to greater lengths (e.g. Press a lever more times) to obtain a reward. Psychological theories [ ] Motivation can be conceived of as a cycle in which thoughts influence behaviors, behaviors drive performance, performance affects thoughts, and the cycle begins again.

Each stage of the cycle is composed of many dimensions including attitudes, beliefs, intentions, effort, and withdrawal which can all affect the motivation that an individual experiences. Most psychological theories hold that motivation exists purely within the individual, but express motivation as an outcome of participation in actions and activities within the context of social groups. Rational motivations [ ] The idea that human beings are rational and is guided by reason is an old one. However, recent research (on for example) has significantly undermined the idea of or of in favour of a more. The field of is particularly concerned with the limits of rationality in economic agents. Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation [ ] Motivation can be divided into two different theories known as intrinsic (internal or inherent) motivation and extrinsic (external) motivation.

Intrinsic motivation [ ]. See also: and Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s.

Intrinsic motivation is the self-desire to seek out new things and new challenges, to analyze one's capacity, to observe and to gain knowledge. It is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for consideration. The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behavior. In these studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in playful and curiosity driven behaviors in the absence of. Intrinsic motivation is a natural motivational tendency and is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physical development.

The two necessary elements for intrinsic motivation are and an increase in perceived competence. In short, the cause of the behavior must be internal, known as internal local of causality, and the individual who engages in the behavior must perceive that the task increases their competence.

Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities. Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they: • attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy or • believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as beliefs • are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades An example of intrinsic motivation is when an employee becomes an IT professional because he or she wants to learn about how computer users interact with computer networks. The employee has the intrinsic motivation to gain more knowledge. Is an example of intrinsic motivation in the domain of art.

Traditionally, researchers thought of motivations to use computer systems to be primarily driven by extrinsic purposes; however, many modern systems have their use driven primarily by intrinsic motivations. Examples of such systems used primarily to fulfil users' intrinsic motivations, include on-line gaming, virtual worlds, online shopping, learning/education, online dating, digital music repositories, social networking, online pornography, gamified systems, and general gamification. Even traditional management information systems (e.g., ERP, CRM) are being 'gamified' such that both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations must increasingly be considered. Not only can intrinsic motivation be used in a personal setting, but it can also be implemented and utilized in a social environment. Instead of attaining mature desires, such as those presented above via internet which can be attained on one's own, intrinsic motivation can be used to assist extrinsic motivation to attain a goal.

For example, Eli, a 4-year-old with autism, wants to achieve the goal of playing with a toy train. To get the toy, he must first communicate to his therapist that he wants it. His desire to play is strong enough to be considered intrinsic motivation because it is a natural feeling, and his desire to communicate with his therapist to get the train can be considered extrinsic motivation because the outside object is a reward (see incentive theory).

Communicating with the therapist is the first, slightly more challenging goal that stands in the way of achieving his larger goal of playing with the train. Achieving these goals in attainable pieces is also known as the. Advantages: Intrinsic motivation can be long-lasting and self-sustaining.

Efforts to build this kind of motivation are also typically efforts at promoting student learning. Such efforts often focus on the subject rather than rewards or punishments. Disadvantages: Efforts at fostering intrinsic motivation can be slow to affect behavior and can require special and lengthy preparation. Students are individuals, so a variety of approaches may be needed to motivate different students. It is often helpful to know what interests one's students in order to connect these interests with the subject matter. This requires getting to know one's students.

Also, it helps if the instructor is interested in the subject. Extrinsic motivation [ ].

See also: Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain a desired outcome and it is the opposite of intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation comes from influences outside of the individual. In extrinsic motivation, the harder question to answer is where do people get the motivation to carry out and continue to push with persistence.

Usually extrinsic motivation is used to attain outcomes that a person wouldn't get from intrinsic motivation. Common extrinsic motivations are (for example money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment following misbehavior. Competition is an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives. Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition.

However, another study showed that third graders who were rewarded with a book showed more reading behavior in the future, implying that some rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation. While the provision of extrinsic rewards might reduce the desirability of an activity, the use of extrinsic constraints, such as the threat of punishment, against performing an activity has actually been found to increase one's intrinsic interest in that activity. In one study, when children were given mild threats against playing with an attractive toy, it was found that the threat actually served to increase the child's interest in the toy, which was previously undesirable to the child in the absence of threat. Behaviorist theories [ ] While many theories on motivation have a perspective, focus only on observable behavior and theories founded on experimental evidence.

In the view of behaviorism, motivation is understood as a question about what factors cause, prevent, or withhold various behaviors, while the question of, for instance, conscious motives would be ignored. Where others would speculate about such things as values, drives, or needs, that may not be observed directly, behaviorists are interested in the observable variables that affect the type, intensity, frequency and duration of observable behavior. Through the basic research of such scientists as, and, several basic mechanisms that govern behavior have been identified. The most important of these are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical and operant conditioning [ ]. Main article: In, behavior is understood as responses triggered by certain environmental or physical stimuli.

They can be unconditioned, such as in-born reflexes, or learned through the pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a different stimulus, which then becomes a conditioned stimulus. In relation to motivation, classical conditioning might be seen as one explanation as to why an individual performs certain responses and behaviors in certain situations. For instance, a dentist might wonder why a patient does not seem motivated to show up for an appointment, with the explanation being that the patient has associated the dentist (conditioned stimulus) with the pain (unconditioned stimulus) that elicits a fear response (conditioned response), leading to the patient being reluctant to visit the dentist. In, the type and frequency of behavior is determined mainly by its consequences. If a certain behavior, in the presence of a certain stimulus, is followed by a desirable consequence (a ), the emitted behavior will increase in frequency in the future, in the presence of the stimulus that preceded the behavior (or a similar one). Conversely, if the behavior is followed by something undesirable (a ), the behavior is less likely to occur in the presence of the stimulus. In a similar manner, removal of a stimulus directly following the behavior might either increase or decrease the frequency of that behavior in the future (negative reinforcement or punishment).

For instance, a student that gained praise and a good grade after turning in a paper, might seem more motivated in writing papers in the future (); if the same student put in a lot of work on a task without getting any praise for it, he or she might seem less motivated to do school work in the future (). If a student starts to cause trouble in class gets punished with something he or she dislikes, such as detention (), that behavior would decrease in the future. The student might seem more motivated to behave in class, presumably in order to avoid further detention (). The strength of reinforcement or punishment is dependent on and timing. A reinforcer or punisher affects the future frequency of a behavior most strongly if it occurs within seconds of the behavior. A behavior that is reinforced intermittently, at unpredictable intervals, will be more robust and persistent, compared to one that is reinforced every time the behavior is performed.

For example, if the misbehaving student in the above example was punished a week after the troublesome behavior, that might not affect future behavior. In addition to these basic principles,. Bpc Toolkit For Load Runner Trailer.

Behavior is punished or reinforced in the context of whatever stimuli were present just before the behavior was performed, which means that a particular behavior might not be affected in every environmental context, or situation, after it is punished or reinforced in one specific context. A lack of praise for school-related behavior might, for instance, not decrease after-school sports-related behavior that is usually reinforced by praise.

The various mechanisms of operant conditioning may be used to understand the motivation for various behaviors by examining what happens just after the behavior (the consequence), in what context the behavior is performed or not performed (the antecedent), and under what circumstances (motivating operators). Incentive motivation [ ]. Main section: Incentive theory is a specific theory of motivation, derived partly from behaviorist principles of reinforcement, which concerns an incentive or motive to do something. The most common incentive would be a compensation.

Compensation can be tangible or intangible, It helps in motivating the employees in their corporate life, students in academics and inspire to do more and more to achieve profitability in every field. Studies show that if the person receives the immediately, the effect is greater, and decreases as delay lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become a habit. 'Reinforcers and reinforcement principles of behavior differ from the hypothetical construct of reward.' A reinforcer is anything that follows an action, with the intentions that the action will now occur more frequently. From this perspective, the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces is irrelevant. Incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and behavior of the individual as they are influenced by beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable.

Incentive theory is promoted by behavioral psychologists, such as B.F. Incentive theory is especially supported by Skinner in his philosophy of Radical behaviorism, meaning that a person's actions always have social ramifications: and if actions are positively received people are more likely to act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in this manner. Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as drive theory, in the direction of the motivation.

In incentive theory, stimuli 'attract' a person towards them, and push them towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviorism, incentive theory involves positive reinforcement: the reinforcing stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier. As opposed to in drive theory, which involves negative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the punishment—the lack of homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has come to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of hunger, or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst. Motivating operations [ ], MOs, relate to the field of motivation in that they help improve understanding aspects of behavior that are not covered by operant conditioning.

In operant conditioning, the function of the reinforcer is to influence future behavior. The presence of a stimulus believed to function as a reinforcer does not according to this terminology explain the current behavior of an organism – only previous instances of reinforcement of that behavior (in the same or similar situations) do. Through the behavior-altering effect of MOs, it is possible to affect current behavior of an individual, giving another piece of the puzzle of motivation. Motivating operations are factors that affect learned behavior in a certain context. MOs have two effects: a value-altering effect, which increases or decreases the efficiency of a reinforcer, and a behavior-altering effect, which modifies learned behavior that has previously been punished or reinforced by a particular stimulus. When a motivating operation causes an increase in the effectiveness of a reinforcer, or amplifies a learned behavior in some way (such as increasing frequency, intensity, duration or speed of the behavior), it functions as an establishing operation, EO. A common example of this would be food deprivation, which functions as an EO in relation to food: the food-deprived organism will perform behaviors previously related to the acquisition of food more intensely, frequently, longer, or faster in the presence of food, and those behaviors would be especially strongly reinforced.

For instance, a fast-food worker earning minimal wage, forced to work more than one job to make ends meet, would be highly motivated by a pay raise, because of the current deprivation of money (a conditioned establishing operation). The worker would work hard to try to achieve the raise, and getting the raise would function as an especially strong reinforcer of work behavior. Conversely, a motivating operation that causes a decrease in the effectiveness of a reinforcer, or diminishes a learned behavior related to the reinforcer, functions as an abolishing operation, AO. Again using the example of food, satiation of food prior to the presentation of a food stimulus would produce a decrease on food-related behaviors, and diminish or completely abolish the reinforcing effect of acquiring and ingesting the food. Consider the board of a large investment bank, concerned with a too small profit margin, deciding to give the CEO a new incentive package in order to motivate him to increase firm profits.

If the CEO already has a lot of money, the incentive package might not be a very good way to motivate him, because he would be satiated on money. Getting even more money wouldn't be a strong reinforcer for profit-increasing behavior, and wouldn't elicit increased intensity, frequency or duration of profit-increasing behavior. Motivation and psychotherapy [ ].

See also: Motivation lies at the core of many behaviorist approaches to psychological treatment. A person with disorder is seen as lacking motivation to perform socially relevant behaviors – social stimuli are not as reinforcing for people with autism compared to other people. Is understood as a lack of reinforcement (especially positive reinforcement) leading to extinction of behavior in the depressed individual.

A patient with is not motivated to seek out the phobic stimulus because it acts as a punisher, and is over-motivated to avoid it (negative reinforcement). In accordance, therapies have been designed to address these problems, such as and for major depression and specific phobia. Socio-cultural theory [ ] Sociocultural theory (see ) (also known as Social Motivation) emphasizes impact of activity and actions mediated through social interaction, and within social contexts. Galaxy Ace Usb Driver Windows Xp there. Sociocultural theory represents a shift from traditional theories of motivation, which view the individual’s innate drives or mechanistic operand learning as primary determinants of motivation. Critical elements to socio-cultural theory applied to motivation include, but are not limited to, the role of social interactions and the contributions from culturally-based knowledge and practice.

Sociocultural theory extends the social aspects of, which espouses the important role of positive feedback from others during action, but requires the individual as the internal locus of causality. Sociocultural theory predicts that motivation has an external locus of causality, and is socially distributed among the social group. An example of socio cultural theory would be social settings where people work together to solve collective problems, such as athletic teams, study groups, work groups, and civic organization. Although individuals will have internalized goals, they will also develop internalized goals of others, as well as new interests and goals collectively with those that they feel socially connected to. Social motivation is tied to one's activity in a group. It cannot form from a single mind alone.

For example, bowling alone is naught but the dull act of throwing a ball into pins, and so people are much less likely to smile during the activity alone, even upon getting a strike because their satisfaction or dissatisfaction does not need to be communicated, and so it is internalized. However, when with a group, people are more inclined to smile regardless of their results because it acts as a positive communication that is beneficial for pleasurable interaction and teamwork. Thus the act of bowling becomes a social activity as opposed to a dull action because it becomes an exercise in interaction, competition, team building, and sportsmanship. It is because of this phenomenon that studies have shown that people are more intrigued in performing mundane activities so long as there is company because it provides the opportunity to interact in one way or another, be it for bonding, amusement, collaboration, or alternative perspectives.

Examples of activities that may one may not be motivated to do alone but could be done with others for social benefit are things such as throwing and catching a baseball with a friend, making funny faces with children, building a treehouse, and performing a debate. Push and pull [ ] Push motivations are those where people push themselves towards their goals or to achieve something, such as the desire for escape, rest and relaxation, prestige, health and fitness, adventure, and social interaction. However, with push motivation it's also easy to get discouraged when there are obstacles present in the path of achievement. Push motivation acts as a willpower and people's willpower is only as strong as the desire behind the willpower. Additionally, a study has been conducted on social networking and its push and pull effects. One thing that is mentioned is 'Regret and dissatisfaction correspond to push factors because regret and dissatisfaction are the negative factors that compel users to leave their current service provider.'

So from reading this, we now know that Push motivations can also be a negative force. In this case, that negative force is regret and dissatisfaction. Pull motivation is the opposite of push. It is a type of motivation that is much stronger. 'Some of the factors are those that emerge as a result of the attractiveness of a destination as it is perceived by those with the propensity to travel. They include both tangible resources, such as beaches, recreation facilities, and cultural attractions, and traveler's perceptions and expectation, such as novelty, benefit expectation, and marketing image.'

Pull motivation can be seen as the desire to achieve a goal so badly that it seems that the goal is pulling us toward it. That is why pull motivation is stronger than push motivation. It is easier to be drawn to something rather than to push yourself for something you desire. It can also be an alternative force when compared to negative force.

From the same study as previously mentioned, 'Regret and dissatisfaction with an existing SNS service provider may trigger a heightened interest toward switching service providers, but such a motive will likely translate into reality in the presence of a good alternative. Therefore, alternative attractiveness can moderate the effects of regret and dissatisfaction with switching intention' And so, pull motivation can be an attracting desire when negative influences come into the picture. Self-control [ ].

Main article: A drive or desire can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These drives are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior.

Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others. Another basic drive is the which like food motivates us because it is essential to our survival. The desire for sex is wired deep into the brain of all human beings as glands secrete hormones that travel through the blood to the brain and stimulates the onset of sexual desire. The hormone involved in the initial onset of sexual desire is called (DHEA).

The hormonal basis of both men and women's sex drives is testosterone. Men naturally have more testosterone than women do and so are more likely than women to think about sex.

Drive-reduction theory [ ]. Clark Hull was the behaviorist who developed the drive-reduction theory of motivation.

Grows out of the concept that people have certain biological drives, such as hunger and thirst. As time passes the strength of the drive increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating).

Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength is reduced. Created by and further developed by, the theory became well known in the 1940s and 1950s. Many of the motivational theories that arose during the 1950s and 1960s were either based on Hull's original theory or were focused on providing alternatives to the drive-reduction theory, including Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which emerged as an alternative to Hull's approach. Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity.

For instance when preparing food, the drive model appears to be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as the food is prepared, and, after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger. There are several problems, however, that leave the validity of drive reduction open for debate.

Cognitive dissonance theory [ ]. Main article: Suggested by, cognitive dissonance occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions: their views on the world around them, and their own personal feelings and actions. For example, a consumer may seek to reassure themselves regarding a purchase, feeling that another decision may have been preferable. Their feeling that another purchase would have been preferable is inconsistent with their action of purchasing the item. The difference between their feelings and beliefs causes dissonance, so they seek to reassure themselves.

While not a theory of motivation, per se, the theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a to reduce dissonance. The perspective makes people want to justify things in a simple way in order to reduce the effort they put into cognition. They do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs, or actions, rather than facing the inconsistencies, because dissonance is a mental strain.

Dissonance is also reduced by justifying, blaming, and denying. It is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories in. Content theories [ ] The content theory was one of the earliest theories of motivation. Content theories can also be referred to needs theories, because the theory focuses on the importance of what motivates people (needs). In other words, they try to identify what are the 'needs' and how they relate to motivation to fulfill those needs.

Another definition could be defined by Pritchard and Ashwood, is the process used to allocate energy to maximize the satisfaction of needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs [ ] •. Maslow's Pyramid of human motivation includes both 's and 's two-factor theory. Maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation. Abraham Maslow believed that man is inherently good and argued that individuals possess a constantly growing inner drive that has great potential. The needs hierarchy system, devised by Maslow (1954), is a commonly used scheme for classifying human motives.

The American motivation psychologist Abraham H. Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs consisting of five hierarchic classes. According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs. The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as follows: • (,,, etc.) • /// • // • //Achievement • /achievement of full The basic requirements build upon the first step in the pyramid: physiology. If there are deficits on this level, all behavior will be oriented to satisfy this deficit.

Essentially, if you have not slept or eaten adequately, you won't be interested in your self-esteem desires. Subsequently, we have the second level, which awakens a need for security. After securing those two levels, the motives shift to the social sphere, the third level. Psychological requirements comprise the fourth level, while the top of the hierarchy consists of self-realization and self-actualization. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory can be summarized as follows: • Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior. Only unsatisfied needs influence behavior, satisfied needs do not.

• Needs are arranged in order of importance to human life, from the basic to the complex. • The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at least minimally satisfied. • The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will show. Herzberg's two-factor theory [ ]. 's two-factor theory concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in, but if absent, they don't lead to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction. The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime, but 'respect for me as a person' is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life. He distinguished between: • Motivators (e.g.

Challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give positive satisfaction, and • Hygiene factors (e.g. Status,, and fringe benefits) that do not motivate if present, but, if absent, result in demotivation. Herzberg concluded that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction were the products of two separate factors: motivating factors (satisfiers) and hygiene factors (dissatisfiers). Some motivating factors (satisfiers) were: Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth.

Some hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) were: company policy, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, salary, status, job security, and personal life. The name hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will not improve health, but absence can cause health deterioration. Herzberg's theory has found application in such occupational fields as information systems and in studies of user satisfaction such as.

Alderfer's ERG theory [ ]. Main article:, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory.

This theory posits that there are three groups of core needs — existence, relatedness, and growth, hence the label: ERG theory. The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs.

The second group of needs are those of relatedness- the desire we have for maintaining important personal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs as an intrinsic desire for personal development. Maslow's categories are broken down into many different parts and there are a lot of needs. The ERG categories are more broad and covers more than just certain areas. As a person grows, the existence, relatedness, and growth for all desires continue to grow.

All these needs should be fulfilled to greater wholeness as a human being. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the characteristics included under self-actualization. Self-determination theory [ ]. Main article: Since the early 1970s Edward L.

Deci and Richard M. Ryan have conducted research that eventually led to the proposition of the self-determination theory (SDT). This theory focuses on the degree to which an individual's behaviour is self-motivated and self-determined. SDT identifies three innate needs that, if satisfied, allow optimal function and growth: competence, relatedness, and autonomy.

These three psychological needs motivate the self to initiate specific behaviour and mental nutriments that are essential for psychological health and well-being. When these needs are satisfied, there are positive consequences, such as well-being and growth, leading people to be motivated, productive and happy. When they are thwarted, people's motivation, productivity and happiness plummet. There are three essential elements to the theory: • Humans are inherently proactive with their potential and mastering their inner forces (such as drive and emotions). • Humans have an inherent tendency towards growth, development and integrated functioning. • Optimal development and actions are inherent in humans but they do not happen automatically.

Temporal motivation theory [ ]. Main article: Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features: proximity, difficulty and specificity. One common goal setting methodology incorporates the, in which goals are: specific, measurable, attainable/achievable, relevant, and time-bound. Time management is an important aspect to consider, when regarding time as a factor contributing to goal achievement.

Having too much time allows area for distraction and procrastination, which simultaneously distracts the subject by steering his or her attention away from the original goal. An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end state is close. With an overly restricting time restraint, the subject could potentially feel overwhelmed, which could deter the subject from achieving the goal because the amount of time provided is not sufficient or rational. This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a bike than to master. A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. Most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success).

At the same time people want to feel that there is a substantial that they will succeed. Specificity concerns the description of the goal in their class.

The goal should be objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. Similarly to 's Hierarchy of Needs, a larger end goal is easier to achieve if the subject has smaller, more attainable yet still challenging goals to achieve first in order to advance over a period of time. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is trying to motivate oneself to run a when s/he has not had proper training.

A smaller, more attainable goal is to first motivate oneself to take the stairs instead of an elevator or to replace a stagnant activity, like watching television, with a mobile one, like spending time walking and eventually working up to a jog. Note: all goals are subject to the individual's skills and abilities. Expectancy theory [ ]. See also: Social-cognitive models of behavior change include the constructs of motivation and. Motivation is seen as a process that leads to the forming of behavioral. Volition is seen as a process that leads from intention to actual behavior.

In other words, motivation and volition refer to goal setting and goal pursuit, respectively. Both processes require self-regulatory efforts. Several self-regulatory constructs are needed to operate in to attain goals. An example of such a motivational and volitional construct is perceived.

Self-efficacy is supposed to facilitate the forming of behavioral intentions, the development of action plans, and the initiation of action. It can support the translation of intentions into action., David Birch and their colleagues developed the theory of 'Dynamics of Action' to mathematically model change in behavior as a consequence of the interaction of motivation and associated tendencies toward specific actions.

The theory posits that change in behavior occurs when the tendency for a new, unexpressed behavior becomes dominant over the tendency currently motivating action. In the theory, the strength of tendencies rises and falls as a consequence of internal and external stimuli (sources of instigation), inhibitory factors, and consummatory in factors such as performing an action. In this theory, there are three causes responsible for behavior and change in behavior: • Instigation (Ts) – increases tendency when an activity has intrinsic ability to satisfy; • Inhibition (Taf) – decreases tendency when there are obstacles to performing an activity; and • Consummation – decreases a tendency as it is performed. Thematic apperception test [ ]. Main article: Psychologists and argued that motivation should be unconscious. They refined measures of motivation by means of of using, for example, the Thematic Apperception Test.'

Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory [ ] Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people, Professor has proposed a theory that found 16 basic desires that guide nearly all human behavior. Is the tendency to find challenges, to push to find out for more, explore, and learn as much as possible. It is about reaching the most possible potential as a human being. The 16 basic desires that motivate our actions and define our personalities are. •, the need for approval •, the need to learn •, the need for food •, the need to raise children •, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's clan/ethnic group •, the need for social justice •, the need for individuality •, the need for organized, stable, predictable environments •, the need for exercise •, the need for influence of will •, the need for sex and for beauty •, the need to collect •, the need for friends (peer relationships) •, the need for social standing/importance •, the need to be safe •, the need to strike back and to compete Attribution theory [ ]. Main article: Attribution theory is a theory developed by psychologist, that describes the processes by which individuals explain the causes of their behavior and events. A form of attribution theory developed by psychologist, describes an individual's beliefs about how the causes of success or failure affect their emotions and motivations.

Bernard Weiner's theory can be defined into two perspectives: intrapersonal or interpersonal. The intrapersonal perspective includes self-directed thoughts and emotions that are attributed to the self. The interpersonal perspective includes beliefs about the responsibility of others and other directed affects of emotions; the individual would place the blame on another individual. Individuals formulate explanatory attributions to understand the events they experience and to seek reasons for their failures. When individuals seek positive feedback from their failures, they use the feedback as motivation to show improved performances. For example, using the intrapersonal perspective, a student who failed a test may attribute their failure for not studying enough and would use their emotion of shame or embarrassment as motivation to study harder for the next test.

A student who blames their test failure on the teacher would be using the interpersonal perspective, and would use their feeling of disappointment as motivation to rely on a different study source other than the teacher for the next test. Approach versus avoidance [ ]. Main article: Approach motivation (i.e., ) can be defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is or results in a positive or desirable outcome. In contrast, avoidance motivation (i.e., ) can be defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is punished or results in a. Research suggests that, all else being equal, avoidance motivations tend to be more powerful than approach motivations.

Because people expect losses to have more powerful emotional consequences than equal-size gains, they will take more risks to avoid a loss than to achieve a gain. Practical applications [ ] The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many different approaches of motivation training, but many of these are considered by critics. To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many people lack motivation. Employee motivation [ ]. Main article: The job characteristics Model (JCM), as designed by Hackman and Oldham attempts to use job design to improve employee motivation. Main articles: and At lower levels of, such as physiological needs, money is a motivator, however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in accordance with 's two-factor model of motivation).

At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money, as both 's theory of motivation and 's (pertaining to the theory of leadership) demonstrate. According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs. The lower level needs such as Physiological and Safety needs will have to be satisfied before higher level needs are to be addressed. We can relate Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory with employee motivation. For example, if a manager is trying to motivate his employees by satisfying their needs; according to Maslow, he should try to satisfy the lower level needs before he tries to satisfy the upper level needs or the employees will not be motivated. Also he has to remember that not everyone will be satisfied by the same needs. A good manager will try to figure out which levels of needs are active for a certain individual or employee.

Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other needs are better motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and feels it is a poor motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category and are considered stronger motivators than money. • Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job. • Motivated employees are more quality oriented.

• Motivated workers are more productive. The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally staff are more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side. Motivation is a powerful tool in the work environment that can lead to employees working at their most efficient levels of production. Nonetheless, Steinmetz also discusses three common character types of subordinates: ascendant, indifferent, and ambivalent who all react and interact uniquely, and must be treated, managed, and motivated accordingly. An effective leader must understand how to manage all characters, and more importantly the manager must utilize avenues that allow room for employees to work, grow, and find answers independently. The assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were challenged by a classic study at Vauxhall Motors' UK manufacturing plant.

This introduced the concept of orientation to work and distinguished three main orientations: instrumental (where work is a means to an end), bureaucratic (where work is a source of status, security and immediate reward) and solidaristic (which prioritizes group loyalty). Other theories which expanded and extended those of Maslow and Herzberg included 's, 's and 's. These tend to stress cultural differences and the fact that individuals tend to be motivated by different factors at different times. According to the system of developed by, a worker's motivation is solely determined by pay, and therefore management need not consider psychological or social aspects of work.

In essence, scientific management bases human motivation wholly on and discards the idea of. In contrast, believed that workers could not be motivated by the mere need for —in fact, (e.g., money) could extinguish such as achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator of success for various motives, e.g., keeping score. In keeping with this view, his consulting firm, McBer & Company, had as its first motto 'To make everyone productive, happy, and free.' For McClelland, satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life with their fundamental motivations. Found that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are very important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed that workers could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel important. As a result, employees were given freedom to make decisions on the job and greater attention was paid to informal work groups.

Mayo named the model the. His model has been judged as placing undue reliance on social contacts within work situations for motivating employees. Introduced, a hybrid management approach consisting of both Japanese and American philosophies and cultures. Its Japanese segment is much like the clan culture where organizations focus on a standardized structure with heavy emphasis on socialization of its members. All underlying goals are consistent across the organization. Its American segment retains formality and authority amongst members and the organization. Ultimately, Theory Z promotes common structure and commitment to the organization, as well as constant improvement of work efficacy.

In Essentials of Organizational Behavior, Robbins and Judge examine recognition programs as motivators, and identify five principles that contribute to the success of an employee: • Recognition of employees' individual differences, and clear identification of behavior deemed worthy of recognition • Allowing employees to participate • Linking rewards to performance • Rewarding of nominators • Visibility of the recognition process Modern organizations adopt non-monetary employee motivation methods rather than tying it with tangible rewards. • Provide a positive work environment • Encourage team contribution and rewards • Feedback • Give challenging roles • Empowering employees with training and independent thinking This method makes employees feel they're a part of the organization and their reward is seeing it grow through their efforts. Games [ ] Motivational models are central to, because without motivation, a player will not be interested in progressing further within a. Several models for gameplay motivations have been proposed, including.

Has proposed a four-quadrant model of gameplay motivation that includes cooperation, competition, immersion and achievement. The motivational structure of games is central to the trend, which seeks to apply game-based motivation to business applications. In the end, game designers must know the needs and desires of their customers for their companies to flourish. There have been various studies on the connection between motivation and games. One particular study was on Taiwanese adolescents and their drive of addiction to games.

Two studies by the same people were conducted. The first study revealed that addicted players showed higher intrinsic than and more than the non-addicted players. It can then be said that addicted players, according to the studies findings, are more internally motivated to play games.

They enjoy the reward of playing. There are studies that also show that motivation gives these players more to look for in the future such as long-lasting experience that they may keep later on in life. See also [ ].