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10,000 BCE – 2,000 CE (vertical population scale is logarithmic) Humanity's written history was preceded by its, beginning with the ('Early Stone Age'), followed by the ('New Stone Age'). The Neolithic saw the begin, between 8000 and 5000, in the 's. Native Instruments Maschine Product Key. The Agricultural Revolution marked a fundamental change in history, with humans beginning the systematic of plants and animals. As agriculture advanced, most humans transitioned from a to a settled lifestyle as farmers in. The relative security and increased productivity provided by farming allowed communities to expand into increasingly larger units, fostered by advances in. Whether in prehistoric or historic times, people always had to be near reliable sources of.

Cities developed on as early as 3000 BCE, when some of the first well-developed settlements arose in, on the banks of 's, in the, and along China's rivers. As farming developed, became more sophisticated and prompted a to store food between growing seasons. Labour divisions led to the rise of a leisured and the development of, which provided the foundation for. The growing complexity of human societies necessitated systems of and.

With civilizations flourishing, (',' including the, up to about 500 CE ) saw the rise and fall of empires. 500–1500 CE ) witnessed the rise of, the (c. 1258 CE), and the early Italian (from around 1300 CE). The, sometimes referred to as the 'European Age', from about 1500 to 1800, included the and the. The mid-15th-century invention of modern, employing, revolutionized and facilitated ever wider dissemination of, helping end the Middle Ages and ushering in the.

By the 18th century, the accumulation of and had reached a that brought about the and began the, which starts around 1800 and includes the current day. This scheme of historical (dividing history into Antiquity, Post-Classical, Early Modern, and Late Modern periods) was developed for, and applies best to, the history of the, particularly Europe and the Mediterranean. Outside this region, including and, historical timelines unfolded differently. However, by the 18th century, due to extensive and, the histories of most civilizations had become. In the last quarter-millennium, the rates of growth of population, knowledge, technology, communications, commerce, weapons destructiveness, and environmental degradation have greatly accelerated, creating opportunities and perils that now confront the planet's human communities. ', Austria, c. 26,500 BCE Modern humans rapidly from Africa into the frost-free zones of Europe and Asia around 60,000 years ago.

The rapid expansion of humankind to North America and Oceania took place at the climax of the, when temperate regions of today were extremely inhospitable. Yet, humans had colonized nearly all the ice-free parts of the globe by the end of the Ice Age, some 12,000 years ago. Other such as had been using simple wood and stone tools for, but as time progressed, tools became far more refined and complex. Perhaps as early as 1.8 million years ago, but certainly by 500,000 years ago, humans for heat and cooking. They also in the period and a conceptual repertoire that included systematic burial of the dead and adornment of the living. Early artistic expression can be found in the form of and made from ivory, stone, and bone, showing a spirituality generally interpreted as, or even. During this period, all humans lived as, and were generally.

Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers survived in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high while avoiding dense forest cover. Rise of civilization The, beginning around 10,000 BCE, saw the development of agriculture, which fundamentally changed the human lifestyle. Farming developed around 10,000 BCE in the Middle East, around 7000 BCE in what is now China, about 6000 BCE in the and Europe, and about 4000 BCE in the Americas. Cultivation of and the occurred around 8500 BCE in the Middle East, where wheat and barley were the first crops and and were domesticated. In the Indus Valley, crops were cultivated by 6000 BCE, along with domesticated cattle. The Yellow River valley in China cultivated and other cereal crops by about 7000 BCE, but the Yangtze River valley domesticated earlier, by at least 8000 BCE. In the Americas, were cultivated by about 4000 BCE, and and were domesticated in Central America by 3500 BCE.

Were first cultivated in the Andes Mountains of South America, where the was also domesticated., starting with around 6000 BCE, was first used for tools and ornaments. Soon followed, with its main use being for ornaments. The need for metal ores stimulated trade, as many of the areas of early human settlement were lacking in ores., an alloy of copper and, is first known from about 2500 BCE, but did not become widely used until much later.

Though early 'cities' appeared at and around 6000 BCE, the first civilizations did not emerge until around 3000 BCE in and. These cultures gave birth to the invention of the,, bronze-working, boats, the, woven cloth, construction of monumental buildings, and.

Writing developed independently and at different times in five areas of the world: Egypt (c. 3200 BCE), India (c. 3200 BCE), Mesopotamia (c. 3000 BCE), China (c.

1600 BCE), and Mesoamerica (c. Farming permitted far denser populations, which in time organized into.

Agriculture also created food surpluses that could support people not directly engaged in food production. The development of agriculture permitted the creation of the first. These were centres of, and. Cities established a with their surrounding, absorbing agricultural products and providing, in return, manufactured goods and varying degrees of military control and protection. The development of cities was synonymous with the rise of. Arose first in Lower Mesopotamia (3000 BCE), followed by along the (3000 BCE), the in the (in present-day India and Pakistan; 2500 BCE), and along the and (2200 BCE). These societies developed a number of unifying characteristics, including a central government, a complex economy and social structure, sophisticated language and writing systems, and distinct cultures and religions.

Writing facilitated the administration of cities, the expression of ideas, and the preservation of information. Entities such as the Sun, Moon, Earth, sky, and sea were often deified. [ ] developed, which evolved into establishments, complete with a complex hierarchy of and other functionaries. Typical of the Neolithic was a tendency to worship. Among the earliest surviving written religious scriptures are the Egyptian, the oldest of which date to between 2400 and 2300 BCE. Ancient history.

The Bronze Age is part of the (,, ) that for some parts of the world describes effectively the early history of. During this era the most fertile areas of the world saw and the develop. These were concentrated in fertile river valleys: the in, the in, [ ] the in the, and the and in China., located in, is the first known complex civilization, developing the first in the 4th millennium BCE. It was in these cities that the earliest known form of writing,, appeared around 3000 BCE. Cuneiform writing began as a system of.

These pictorial representations eventually became simplified and more abstract. Cuneiform texts were written on, on which were drawn with a blunt used as a. Writing made the administration of a large state far easier. Transport was facilitated by waterways—by rivers and seas.

The, at the juncture of three continents, fostered the projection of military power and the exchange of goods, ideas, and inventions. This era also saw new land technologies, such as horse-based cavalry and chariots, that allowed armies to move faster. These developments led to the rise of territorial states and.

In Mesopotamia there prevailed a pattern of independent warring city-states and of a loose hegemony shifting from one city to another. [ ] In Egypt, by contrast, first there was a dual division into which was shortly followed by unification of all the valley around 3100 BCE, followed by permanent pacification. In Crete the had entered the Bronze Age by 2700 BCE and is regarded as the first civilization in Europe.

Over the next millennia, other river valleys saw monarchical empires rise to power. [ ] In the 25th – 21st centuries BCE, the empires of and arose in. Over the following millennia, civilizations developed across the world. Increasingly became a source of power as states with access to important resources or controlling important trade routes rose to dominance. [ ] By 1400 BCE, began to develop. In India this era was the, which laid the foundations of and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 6th century BCE.

From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the were established across the subcontinent. As complex civilizations arose in the Eastern Hemisphere, the indigenous societies in the remained relatively simple and fragmented into diverse regional cultures. During the in (about 1500 BCE to 500 CE), more complex and centralized civilizations began to develop, mostly in what is now Mexico, Central America, and Peru. They included civilizations such as the,,,, and. They developed agriculture, growing,,,, and, crops unique to the Americas, and creating distinct cultures and religions. These ancient indigenous societies would be greatly affected, for good and ill, by European contact during the early modern period.

Beginning in the 8th century BCE, the ' saw the development of a set of transformative philosophical and religious ideas, mostly independently, in many different places. [ ] Chinese, Indian and, and are all claimed by some scholars to have developed in the 6th century BCE. (' Axial-Age theory also includes, but other scholars dispute his timeline for Zoroastrianism.) In the 5th century BCE, and made substantial advances in the development of.

In the East, three schools of thought would dominate Chinese thinking until the modern day. These were,, and. The Confucian tradition, which would become particularly dominant, looked for not to the force of law but to the power and example of. Confucianism would later spread to the and toward. In the West, the philosophical tradition, represented by,,, and other philosophers, along with accumulated science, technology, and culture, diffused throughout, Egypt, the, and Northwest India, starting in the 4th century BCE after the conquests of Alexander III of (). Regional empires. Main articles: and The millennium from 500 BCE to 500 CE saw a series of empires of unprecedented size develop.

Well-trained professional armies, unifying ideologies, and advanced bureaucracies created the possibility for emperors to rule over large domains whose populations could attain numbers upwards of tens of millions of subjects. The great depended on of territory and on the formation of defended settlements to become agricultural centres.

The relative peace that the empires brought encouraged, most notably the massive trade routes in the, the maritime trade web in the Indian Ocean, and the. In southern Europe, the (and later the ), in an era known as ',' established cultures whose practices, laws, and customs are considered the foundation of contemporary. There were a number of regional empires during this period. The kingdom of the helped to destroy the in tandem with the nomadic and the., the capital of Assyria, was sacked by the Medes in 612 BCE. The gave way to successive empires, including the (550–330 BCE) and the (224–651 CE). Several empires began in modern-day Greece. First was the (from 477 BCE) and the succeeding (454–404 BCE), centred in present-day.

Later, (356–323 BCE), of, founded an empire of conquest, extending from present-day Greece to present-day India. The empire divided shortly after his death, but the influence of his successors made for an extended (323–31 BCE) throughout the region. In Asia, the (322–185 BCE) existed in present-day; in the 3rd century BCE, most of was united to the Maurya Empire by and flourished under. From the 3rd century CE, the oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's Golden Age. From the 4th to 6th centuries, northern India was ruled by the.

In southern India, three prominent kingdoms emerged: the, [ ], and. The ensuing stability contributed to heralding in the golden age of culture in the 4th and 5th centuries. In Europe, the, centred in present-day, began in the 7th century BCE. Beginning in the 3rd century BCE, the began expanding its territory through conquest and alliances. By the time of (63 BCE – 14 CE), who became the first Roman Emperor, Rome had already established dominion over most of the Mediterranean. The empire would continue to grow, controlling much of the land from to, reaching its greatest extent under the emperor (d.

In the 3rd century CE, the empire would split into western and eastern regions, with (usually) separate emperors. The Western empire would fall, in 476 CE, to German influence under. The eastern empire, now known as the, with its capital at, would continue for another thousand years, until overthrown by the in 1453 CE. In China, the (221–206 BCE), the first imperial dynasty of China, was followed by the (206 BCE – 220 CE).

The Han Dynasty was comparable in power and influence to the Roman Empire that lay at the other end of the. Han China developed advanced cartography, shipbuilding, and navigation. The Chinese invented, and created finely tuned copper instruments. As with other empires during the Classical Period, Han China advanced significantly in the areas of government, education, mathematics, astronomy, technology, and many others. In Africa, the, centred in present-day Ethiopia, established itself by the 1st century CE as a major trading empire, dominating its neighbours in South and and controlling the trade.

It minted its own currency and carved enormous monolithic such as the to mark their emperors' graves. Successful regional empires were also established in the, arising from cultures established as early as 2500 BCE. In, vast pre-Columbian societies were built, the most notable being the (700 BCE – 1521 CE), and the, which reached its highest state of development during the Mesoamerican Classic period (c. 250–900 CE), but continued throughout the Post-Classic period until the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century CE.

Maya civilization arose as the gradually declined. The great Mayan slowly rose in number and prominence, and Maya culture spread throughout the and surrounding areas. The later empire of the was built on neighbouring cultures and was influenced by conquered peoples such as the. Some areas experienced slow but steady technological advances, with important developments such as the and arriving every few centuries.

There were, however, in some regions, periods of rapid technological progress. Most important, perhaps, was the area during the, when hundreds of technologies were invented. Such periods were followed by periods of technological decay, as during the 's decline and and the ensuing period.

Declines, falls and resurgence The empires faced common problems associated with maintaining huge armies and supporting a central bureaucracy. These costs fell most heavily on the, while land-owning increasingly evaded centralized control and its costs. Pressure on the frontiers hastened internal dissolution. 's fell into in 220 CE, beginning the period, while its counterpart became increasingly decentralized and divided about the same time in what is known as the. The great empires of Eurasia were all located on temperate and subtropical coastal plains. From the steppes, horse-based nomads (mainly Mongols and Turks) dominated a large part of the continent.

The development of the and the breeding of horses strong enough to carry a fully armed archer made the nomads a constant threat to the more settled civilizations. Now a The gradual break-up of the, spanning several centuries after the 2nd century CE, coincided with the spread of outward from the Middle East. The Western Roman Empire fell under the domination of in the 5th century, and these gradually developed into a number of warring states, all associated in one way or another with the. The remaining part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern Mediterranean, continued as what came to be called the. Centuries later, a limited unity would be restored to western Europe through the establishment in 962 of a revived 'Roman Empire', later called the, comprising a number of states in what is now Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Belgium, Italy, and parts of France.

In China, would rise and fall, but, by sharp contrast to the Mediterranean-European world, dynastic unity would be restored. After the fall of the and the demise of the Three Kingdoms, tribes from the north began to invade in the 4th century, eventually conquering areas of northern China and setting up many small kingdoms. [ ] The successfully reunified the whole of China in 581, and laid the foundations for a Chinese golden age under the (618–907).

Post-classical history. The Post-classical Era, though deriving its name from the Eurocentric era of ', refers to a broader geographic sweep.

The era is commonly dated from the 5th-century, which fragmented into many separate kingdoms, some of which would later be confederated under the. The Eastern Roman, or survived until late in the Post-classical, or Medieval, period. The Post-classical period also encompasses the, the subsequent, and the commencement and expansion of the, followed by the in the Middle East and Central Asia, [ ] and the founding around 1280 of the. Saw a series of, followed by the establishment of. In western Africa, the and the developed. On the southeast coast of Africa, Arabic ports were established where,, and other commodities were traded. This allowed Africa to join the trading system, bringing it contact with Asia; this, along with Muslim culture, resulted in the.

The experienced the successive,,,, early Dynasties. Middle Eastern trade routes along the Indian Ocean, and the through the Gobi Desert, provided limited economic and cultural contact between Asian and European civilizations.

During the same period, civilizations in the Americas, such as the,, and, reached their height; all would be seriously compromised by contact with at the beginning of the. Middle East, Central Asia and North Africa. Main articles:,,, and Prior to the advent of Islam in the 7th century, the Middle East was dominated by the and the Persian, which constantly fought each other for control of several disputed regions.

This was also a cultural battle, with the Byzantine Hellenistic and Christian culture competing against the Persian Iranian traditions and. The formation of the created a new contender that quickly surpassed both of these empires. Islam greatly affected the,, and of the, especially the Middle East. Founded 670 CE From their centre on the Arabian Peninsula, Muslims began their expansion during the early Postclassical Era. By 750 CE, they came to conquer most of the Near East, North Africa, and parts of Europe, ushering in an era of learning, science, and invention known as the. The knowledge and skills of the ancient Near East, Greece, and Persia were preserved in the Postclassical Era by Muslims, who also added new and important innovations from outside, such as the manufacture of paper from China and decimal positional numbering from India.

Much of this learning and development can be linked to geography. Even prior to Islam's presence, the city of had served as a centre of trade in Arabia, and the Islamic prophet himself was a merchant. With the new Islamic tradition of the, the pilgrimage to Mecca, the city became even more a centre for exchanging goods and ideas.

The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to the Europeans, Indians, and Chinese, who based their societies on an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their Islamic faith to,,, and the kingdoms of western, and returned with new discoveries and inventions. Motivated by religion and dreams of conquest, European kings launched a number of to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the. The Crusades were ultimately unsuccessful and served more to weaken the especially with the 1204, which began to lose increasing amounts of territory to the. Arab domination of the region ended in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the 's armies, swept through the region but were eventually eclipsed by the Turks [ ] and the founding of the in modern-day around 1280.

Starting with the (581–618), the Chinese began expanding into eastern, and had to deal with nomads, who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in Central Asia. Originally the relationship was largely cooperative, but in 630 the began an offensive against the Turks, capturing areas of the Mongolian Ordos Desert. The Tang Empire competed with the for control of areas in Inner and Central Asia. In the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate the region and soon became the sole faith of most of the population, though Buddhism remained strong in the east. [ ] The desert nomads of could militarily match the nomads of the steppe, and the early gained control over parts of Central Asia. The were the most powerful of the nomad groups in the 6th and 7th centuries, and controlled much of the region. In the 9th through 13th centuries the region was divided among several powerful states, including the, [ ] the, and the.

The most spectacular power to rise out of Central Asia developed when united the tribes of Mongolia. The spread to comprise all of Central Asia and China as well as large parts of Russia, and the Middle East. [ ] After Genghis Khan died in 1227, most of Central Asia continued to be dominated by the successor.

In 1369,, a Turkic leader in the Mongol military tradition, conquered most of the region and founded the. Timur's large empire collapsed soon after his death, however. The region then became divided into a series of smaller khanates that were created by the.

These included the, the, and the, all of whose capitals are located in present-day. Saw the rise of polities formed by the, such as the in, the in, and the in. The region will later be called the and will host pirates and privateers who will use several North African ports for their raids against the coastal towns of several European countries in search of slaves to be sold in North African markets as part of the. Main articles: and Europe during the was characterized by depopulation, deurbanization, and invasion, all of which had begun in.

The barbarian invaders formed their own new kingdoms in the remains of the. In the 7th century, North Africa and the Middle East, once part of the, became part of the after conquest by 's successors. Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break was not as extreme as once put forth by historians, with most of the new kingdoms incorporating as many of the existing Roman institutions as they could. Christianity expanded in western Europe, and monasteries were founded. In the 7th and 8th centuries the, under the, established an empire covering much of western Europe; [ ] it lasted until the 9th century, when it succumbed to pressure from new invaders—the,, and. During the, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and crop yields to increase. —the organization of peasants into villages that owed rents and labour service to nobles—and —a political structure whereby and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rents from lands and —were two of the ways of organizing medieval society that developed during the High Middle Ages.

Kingdoms became more centralized after the decentralizing effects of the breakup of the. The, first preached in 1095, were an attempt by western Christians from countries such as the, the and the to regain control of the from the and succeeded long enough to establish some Christian states in the Near East. Also, merchants imported thousands of,,, and into to work as household slaves and in processing. Intellectual life was marked by and the founding of universities, while the building of was one of the outstanding artistic achievements of the age. The were marked by difficulties and calamities. Famine, plague and war devastated the population of western Europe.

[ ] The alone killed approximately 75 to 200 million people between 1347 and 1350. It was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history. Starting in Asia, the disease reached Mediterranean and western during the late 1340s, and killed tens of millions of Europeans in six years; between a third and a half of the population perished. The Middle Ages witnessed the first sustained of northern and western Europe. Many modern European states owe their origins to events unfolding in the Middle Ages; present European political boundaries are, in many regards, the result of military and dynastic events during this tumultuous period. [ ] The Middle Ages lasted until the beginning of the in the 16th century, marked by the rise of, the division of Western in the, the rise of in the, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion which allowed for the.

Sub-Saharan Africa. ', Medieval was home to many different civilizations. The declined in the 7th century as Islam cut it off from its Christian allies and its people moved further into the for protection. They eventually gave way to the who are famed for their rock cut architecture. The Zagwe would then fall to the who claimed descent from the Aksumite emperors [ ] and would rule the country well into the 20th century. In the West African region, many Islamic empires rose, such as the, the, the, and the.

They controlled the in gold, ivory, salt and slaves. South of the Sahel, civilizations rose in the coastal forests where horses and camels could not survive. [ ] These include the city of, noted for its art, and the, the of the centred in, the which produced advanced bronze art at, and the who are noted for their intricate architecture. [ ] Central Africa saw the birth of several states, including the. In what is now modern various kingdoms such as the descended from the in modern. They flourished through trade with the on the East African coast. They built large defensive stone structures without mortar such as, capital of the,, capital of, and (Dhlo-Dhlo), capital of the.

The themselves were the inhabitants of the East African coast from Kenya to Mozambique who traded extensively with Asians and Arabs, who introduced them to Islam. They built many port cities such as, and, which were known to Chinese sailors under and Islamic geographers. In northern, after the fall (550 CE) of the, the region divided into a complex and fluid network of smaller kingly states. [ ] Early Muslim incursions began in the west in 712 CE, when the Arab annexed much of present-day.

Arab military advance was largely halted at that point, but Islam still spread in India, largely due to the influence of Arab merchants along the western coast. Some of the important states that emerged in India at this time included the and the. Post-classical dynasties in South India included those of the, the, the, the, the Islamic, the Marathas and the. Science, engineering, art, literature, astronomy, and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. [ ] East Asia. Main article: After a period of relative disunity, the reunified China in 581, [ ] and under the succeeding (618–907) China entered a. The Tang dynasty eventually splintered, however, and after the reunified China, [ ] when it was, according to, the 'richest, most skilled, and most populous country on earth'.

Pressure from nomadic empires to the north became increasingly urgent. By 1142, North China had been lost to the in the, and the in 1279, along with almost half of Eurasia's landmass.

After about a century of Mongol rule, the ethnic Chinese reasserted control with the founding of the (1368). Battle during In, the imperial lineage had been established by this time, and during the (538–710) the developed into a clearly centralized state. Was introduced, and there was an emphasis on the adoption of elements of Chinese culture and. The of the 8th century marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state and is often portrayed as a golden age.

[ ] During this period, the imperial government undertook great public works, including government offices, temples, roads, and irrigation systems. [ ] The (794 to 1185) saw the peak of imperial power, followed by the rise of militarized clans, and the beginning of. The feudal period of Japanese history, dominated by powerful regional families () and the military rule of warlords () such as the and, stretched from 1185 to 1868.

The emperor remained, but mostly as a figurehead, and the power of merchants was weak. Postclassical saw the end of the era, the three kingdoms being, and. Silla conquered Baekje in 660, and Goguryeo in 668, marking the beginning of the (남북국시대), with in the south and, a successor state to Goguryeo, in the north.

In 892 CE, this arrangement reverted to the, with Goguryeo (then called and eventually named ) emerging as dominant, unifying the entire peninsula by 936. The founding Goryeo dynasty ruled until 1392, succeeded by the, which ruled for approximately 500 years. Southeast Asia. Main article: The beginning of the Middle Ages in Southeast Asia saw the fall (550 CE) of the to the, which was then replaced by the (802 CE). The Khmer's capital city was the largest city in the world prior to the industrial age and contained over a thousand temples, the most famous being.

The (1238 CE) and (1351 CE) kingdoms were major powers of the, who were influenced by the Khmer. Starting in the 9th century, the rose to prominence in modern. Other notable kingdoms of the period include the and the (both coming into prominence in the 7th century), the and the (both about 750), the (968), (13th century), (1293), (1354), and the (1364). Formed tribal alliances such as the. It was also during this period that Islam spread to present-day Indonesia (beginning in the 13th century), and the began to emerge including the, the and the. Main article: The was founded in the 10th century CE and expanded between 1200 and 1500. Tongan culture, language, and hegemony spread widely throughout Eastern Melanesia, Micronesia and Central Polynesia during this period, influencing East 'Uvea, Rotuma, Futuna, Samoa and Niue, as well as specific islands / parts of Micronesia (Kiribati, Pohnpei, the populated by the and miscellaneous outliers), Vanuatu, and New Caledonia (specifically, the, with the main island being predominantly populated by the Melanesian and their cultures).

At around the same time, a powerful appeared in Eastern Polynesia centred around the, specifically on the sacred, which drew in Eastern Polynesian colonists from places as far away as Hawai'i, New Zealand (), and the Tuamotu Islands for political, spiritual and economic reasons, until the unexplained collapse of regular long-distance voyaging in the Eastern Pacific a few centuries before Europeans began exploring the area. Indigenous written records from this period are virtually non-existent, as it seems that all Pacific Islanders, with the possible exception of the enigmatic and their currently undecipherable script, had no writing systems of any kind until after their introduction by European colonists; however, some indigenous prehistories can be estimated and academically reconstructed through careful, judicious analysis of native oral traditions, colonial ethnography, archaeology, physical anthropology and linguistics research. The Americas.

Main articles:,,, and In North America, this period saw the rise of the in the modern c. 800 CE, marked by the extensive 12th-century urban complex. The and their predecessors (9th – 13th centuries) built extensive permanent settlements, including stone structures that would remain the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century. In, the civilization fell and the occurred. The came to dominate much of in the 14th and 15th centuries. In, the 14th and 15th centuries saw the rise of the.

The of Tawantinsuyu, with its capital at, spanned the entire Andes Mountain Range, making it the most extensive Pre-Columbian civilization. The Inca were prosperous and advanced, known for an excellent and unrivaled. Modern history.

Main article: ' is a term used by historians to refer to the period between the () and the —roughly 1500 to 1800. The Early Modern period is characterized by the rise of science, and by increasingly rapid, civic, and the. Began their rise, initially in northern such as.

The Early Modern period also saw the rise and dominance of the economic theory. As such, the Early Modern period represents the decline and eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of, serfdom and the power of the. The period includes the, the disastrous, the, European, the peak of European, the, and the. With Europeans' discoveries During this period, European powers came to dominate most of the world.

Although the most developed regions of European classical civilization were more urbanized than any other region of the world, European civilization had undergone a lengthy period of gradual decline and collapse. During the Early Modern Period, Europe was able to regain its dominance; historians still debate the causes. Europe's success in this period stands in contrast to other regions. For example, one of the most advanced civilizations of the Middle Ages was China. It had developed an advanced by 1,000 CE.

China had a free who were no longer subsistence farmers, and could sell their produce and actively participate in the market. According to, writing in the 18th century, China had long been one of the richest, most fertile, best cultivated, most industrious, most urbanized, and most prosperous countries in the world. It enjoyed a technological advantage and had a monopoly in production, piston bellows, construction,, and the. However, it seemed to have long since stopped progressing., who visited China in the 13th century, describes its cultivation, industry, and populousness almost in the same terms as travelers would in the 18th century. Produced using c.

1450 One theory of Europe's rise holds that Europe's played an important role in its success. The Middle East, India and China are all ringed by mountains and oceans but, once past these outer barriers, are nearly flat.

By contrast, the,,, and other mountain ranges run through Europe, and the continent is also divided by several seas. This gave Europe some degree of protection from the peril of Central Asian invaders. Before the era of firearms, these nomads were militarily superior to the agricultural states on the periphery of the Eurasian continent and, as they broke out into the plains of northern India or the valleys of China, were all but unstoppable. These invasions were often devastating. The was ended by the in 1258. India and China were subject to periodic, and Russia spent a couple of centuries under the yoke.

Central and western Europe, logistically more distant from the Central Asian heartland, proved less vulnerable to these threats. Geography contributed to important differences. For most of their histories, China, India, and the Middle East were each unified under a single dominant power that expanded until it reached the surrounding mountains and deserts.

[ ] In 1600 the controlled almost all the Middle East, the ruled China, and the held sway over India. By contrast, Europe was almost always divided into a number of warring states.

Pan-European empires, with the notable exception of the, tended to collapse soon after they arose. Another doubtless important geographic factor in the rise of Europe was the Mediterranean Sea, which, for millennia, had functioned as a maritime superhighway fostering the exchange of goods, people, ideas and inventions. Nearly all the agricultural civilizations have been heavily constrained by their.

Productivity remained low, and changes easily instigated that brought about civilizations' rise and fall. By about 1500, however, there was a qualitative change in world history. Advance and the generated by gradually brought about a widening of possibilities.

Many have also argued that Europe's institutions allowed it to expand, that and economics were stronger than elsewhere due to an ideal of peculiar to Europe. In recent years, however, scholars such as have challenged this view. Europe's maritime expansion unsurprisingly—given the continent's geography—was largely the work of its Atlantic states: Portugal, Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands.

Initially the and were the predominant conquerors and sources of influence, and their union resulted in the, the first on which the '. Soon the more northern English, French and Dutch began to dominate the Atlantic. In a series of wars fought in the 17th and 18th centuries, culminating with the, Britain emerged as the new world power.

Regional developments. (formerly ), came under the rule of the in 1501, succeeded by the in 1736, and the in 1796. Areas to the north and east were held by and. The, after taking in 1453, quickly gained control of the Middle East, the, and most of North Africa.

In, this period saw a decline in many civilizations and an advancement in others. The declined after coming under Portuguese (and later ) control. In west Africa, the fell to the Moroccans in 1591 when they invaded with guns. The South African gave way to smaller kingdoms such as,, and. Suffered from the 1531 invasion from neighbouring Muslim, and in 1769 entered the (Age of Princes) during which the Emperor became a figurehead and the country was ruled by warlords, though the royal line later would recover under Emperor. The, in the, began to decline in the 17th century, succeeded by the. Other civilizations in Africa advanced during this period.

The experienced its golden age, as did the. The rose to power in what is modern day in 1670. The also thrived during this period. European reached its zenith at this time. Section, In the Far East, the gave way (1644) to the, the last Chinese imperial dynasty, which would rule until 1912. Experienced its (1568–1603), followed by the (1603–1868). The (1392–1910) ruled throughout this period, successfully repelling 16th- and 17th-century invasions from Japan and China.

Japan and China were significantly affected during this period by expanded maritime trade with Europe, particularly the Portuguese in Japan. During the Edo period, Japan would pursue isolationist policies, to eliminate foreign influences.

On the, the and the would give way, beginning in the 16th century, to the. [ ] Starting in the northwest, the Mughal Empire would by the late 17th century come to rule the entire subcontinent, except for the southernmost Indian provinces, which would remain independent. Against the Muslim Mughal Empire, the Hindu was founded on the west coast in 1674, gradually gaining territory—a majority of present-day India—from the Mughals over several decades, particularly in the (1681–1701).

The Maratha Empire would in 1818 fall under the control of the British, with all former Maratha and Mughal authority devolving in 1858 to the. In 1511 the Portuguese overthrew the in present-day Malaysia and Indonesian. The Portuguese held this important trading territory (and the valuable associated navigational strait) until overthrown by the Dutch in 1641. The, centred on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, became the dominant trading power in the region. Expanded with the Dutch in the, and the Spanish in the.

Into the 19th century, European expansion would affect the whole of Southeast Asia, with the British in and, and the establishment of. Only would successfully resist colonization. The Pacific islands of would also be affected by European contact, starting with the circumnavigational voyage of, who landed on the and other islands in 1521. Also notable were the voyages (1642–44) of to present-day Australia, New Zealand and nearby islands, and the voyages (1768–1779) of Captain, who made the first recorded European contact with.

Britain would found its first colony on Australia in 1788. , In the, the vigorously colonized the newly discovered continents, largely displacing the, and destroying the advanced civilizations of the and the. Spain, Portugal, Britain, and France all made extensive territorial claims, and undertook large-scale settlement, including the importation of large numbers of African.

Portugal claimed. Spain claimed the rest of,, and southern. Britain colonized the east coast of North America, and France colonized the central region of North America. Russia made incursions onto the northwest coast of North America, with a first colony in present-day in 1784, and the outpost of in present-day in 1812. [ ] In 1762, in the midst of the, France secretly ceded most of its North American claims to Spain in the.

Thirteen of the British colonies declared independence as the in 1776, ratified by the in 1783, ending the. Won France’s claims back from Spain in the in 1800, but sold them to the United States in 1803 as the. In, was crowned (1547) the first of Russia, and by annexing the Turkic Khanates in the east, transformed Russia into a regional power. The countries of western Europe, while expanding prodigiously through technological advancement and colonial conquest, competed with each other economically and militarily in a state of almost constant. Often the wars had a, either Catholic versus Protestant, or (primarily in eastern Europe) Christian versus Muslim. Wars of particular note include the, the, the, and the. Napoleon came to power in France in 1799, an event foreshadowing the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century.

Late Modern period 1750–1914. 's powered the. The changed humanity's understanding of the world and led to the, a major transformation of the world's economies. The in the 17th century had had little immediate effect on industrial; only in the second half of the 18th century did scientific advances begin to be applied substantially to practical. The Industrial Revolution began in and used new modes of production—the,, and —to manufacture a wide array of goods faster and using less labour than previously required. The Age of Enlightenment also led to the beginnings of modern in the late-18th century and.

And would grow to have a profound effect on world events and on. 1900 After Europeans had achieved influence and control over the Americas, activities turned to the lands of Asia and Oceania. In the 19th century the European states had social and technological advantage over Eastern lands. [ ] Britain gained control of the Indian subcontinent, Egypt and the; the; while the Dutch cemented their control over the. The British also colonized Australia, New Zealand and South Africa with large numbers of British colonists emigrating to these colonies.

Russia colonized large pre-agricultural areas of Siberia. In the late 19th century, the European powers. Within Europe, economic and military challenges created a system of, and ethno-linguistic groupings began to identify themselves as distinctive nations with aspirations for cultural and political autonomy. This would become important to peoples across the world in the 20th century.

During the Second Industrial Revolution, the world economy became reliant on as a fuel, as new methods of, such as and, effectively shrank the world. Meanwhile, industrial and damage, present since the discovery of fire and the beginning of civilization, accelerated drastically. The advantages that Europe had developed by the mid-18th century were two: an culture, and the wealth generated by the Atlantic trade (including the ). By the late 16th century, from the Americas accounted for the Spanish empire's wealth.

[ ] The profits of the and of plantations amounted to 5% of the at the time of the. While some historians conclude that, in 1750, in the most developed regions of China was still on a par with that of Europe's Atlantic economy, other historians like hold that the per-capita productivity of western Europe had by the late surpassed that of all other regions. :,, 1945 The 20th century opened with Europe at an apex of wealth and power, and with much of the world under its direct control or its indirect domination. Much of the rest of the world was influenced by heavily Europeanized nations: the United States and Japan. As the century unfolded, however, the global system dominated by rival powers was subjected to severe strains, and ultimately seemed to yield to a more fluid structure of independent nations organized on Western models.

This transformation was by wars of unparalleled scope and devastation. Destroyed many of Europe's empires and monarchies, and weakened Britain and France. In its aftermath, powerful ideologies arose.

The of 1917 created the first state, while the 1920s and 1930s saw dictatorships gain control in Italy, Germany, Spain and elsewhere. Ongoing national rivalries, exacerbated by the economic turmoil of the, helped precipitate. The of Europe and Japan pursued an ultimately doomed course of. Their defeat opened the way for the advance of communism into Central Europe, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, China, North Vietnam, and North Korea. Contemporary history. Civilians (here,,, 1968) suffered greatly in 20th-century wars.

When ended in 1945, the was founded in the hope of preventing future wars, as the had been formed following. The war had left two countries, the United States and the Soviet Union, with principal power to influence international affairs. Each was suspicious of the other and feared a global spread of the other's, respectively and, political-economic model. This led to the, a forty-five-year stand-off and between the United States and its allies, on one hand, and the Soviet Union and its allies on the other. With the development of during World War II, and with their subsequent proliferation, all of humanity were put at risk of between the two superpowers, as demonstrated by, most prominently the October 1962.

Progecad 2011 Professional Italiano Download Gratis. Such war, were instead waged, at the expense of non-nuclear-armed countries. The Cold War ended in 1991, when the, in part due to inability to compete economically with the United States and western Europe. However, the United States likewise began to show signs of slippage in her geopolitical influence; even as her, now less inhibited by the claims of the, increasingly sought private advantage to the prejudice of the public. In the early postwar decades, the African and Asian colonies of the Belgian, British, Dutch, French, and other west European empires won their formal independence. But the newly independent countries faced challenges in the form of, sociopolitical disarray, poverty, illiteracy, and. Most Western European and Central European countries gradually formed a political and economic community, the, which expanded eastward to include former.

The European Union's effectiveness was handicapped by the immaturity of its common economic and political institutions, somewhat comparable to the inadequacy of United States institutions under the prior to the adoption of the that came into force in 1789. Asian and African countries followed suit and began taking tentative steps toward forming their own respective continental associations. Last Moon landing: (1972) Cold War preparations to deter or to fight a third world war accelerated advances in that, though conceptualized before World War II, had been implemented for that war's exigencies, such as,, and. In the decades after World War II, these advances led to jet travel, with innumerable applications including (GPS), and the —inventions that have revolutionized the movement of people, ideas, and information. However, not all scientific and technological advances in the second half of the 20th century required an initial military impetus. That period also saw ground-breaking developments such as the discovery of the structure of, the consequent sequencing of the, the worldwide, the discovery of, manned and unmanned and of previously inaccessible parts of mankind's, and foundational discoveries in phenomena ranging from the smallest entities () to the greatest entity ().

The century saw several global threats emerge or become more serious or more widely recognized, including,,,,, deadly of diseases,, eruptions,, destroying all electronic equipment, and the dwindling of global (particularly ). 21st century. Partial map of, 2005 The 21st century has been marked by growing and integration, with consequent increased risk to interlinked economies; and by the expansion of communications with and the, which have caused fundamental changes in business, politics, and individuals' personal lives. The early 21st century saw escalating intra- and international strife in the Near East and Afghanistan, stimulated by vast economic disparities, by dissatisfaction with governments dominated by Western interests, by inter-ethnic and inter-sectarian feuds, and by the longest war in the history of the United States, the proximate cause for which was 's provocative of 's. US military involvements in the Near East and Afghanistan drained US economic resources at a time when the US and other Western countries were experiencing mounting socioeconomic dislocations aggravated by the of work and the. • The very word ' comes from the civilis, meaning 'civil,' related to civis ('citizen') and civitas ('city' or 'city-state'). • 'Early Modern,' historically speaking, refers to Western European history from 1501 (after the widely accepted end of the; the transition period was the 15th century) to either 1750 or c.

1790–1800, by whichever is favored by a school of scholars defining the period—which, in many cases of, differs as well within a discipline such as art, philosophy or history. • The Age of Enlightenment has also been referred to as the.

Historians also include the late 17th century, which is typically known as the Age of Reason or, as part of the Enlightenment; however, contemporary historians have considered the Age of Reason distinct to the ideas developed in the Enlightenment. The use of the term here includes both Ages under a single all-inclusive time-frame. • The ', substantially responsible for Earth's, was first described in 1824 by the French mathematician.

The greenhouse effect is a natural mechanism that becomes dangerous if the 's concentrations exceed environmentally safe levels, as they have gradually been doing since the start of the. As predicted, this is already increasing the frequency and severity of and due to accelerated melting of,, and; flooding of low-lying;; disruption and; displacements; with havoc to marine life; release, from thawing, of, a greenhouse gas more powerful than; and intra- and intersocietal, with increased and. The multifarious, irreversible damage from global warming will accelerate as environmental are reached. – on 2 July 2017, belatedly celebrating his 75th birthday, warned that is rapidly approaching an irreversible tipping point that will leave the planet with an uninhabitable environment like that of, with a temperature of 250 degrees and. The are already forced to factor global-warming effects into their planning for military, war, and. • Baten, Joerg, ed.

A History of the Global Economy: 1500 to present.. • (1997),, W.W.

Norton; updated eds., 2003, 2007. • Fournet, Louis-Henri (1986). Diagrammatic Chart of World History. Editions Sides.. Norton & Company.. • (Spring 2006)... 20 (2): 3–22..

The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy. •, ', an 1884 about the history of the world, reflecting the of and External links.